Core Grammar / Function Words

Противопоставле́ние и добавле́ние

Joining two things, and setting them against each other. Russian splits “and” and “but” three ways where English has two, and а is the one with no English equivalent at all.

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The three joining words

и and

Pure addition. The two halves point the same way and nothing is being contrasted.

Он купи́л хлеб и молоко́. He bought bread and milk.
а and, whereas, but

Contrast without opposition. It sets two things side by side. English has no single word for it.

Я чита́ю, а он спит. I am reading, and he is sleeping.
но but

Real opposition: the second half defeats the expectation the first half raised.

Он хоте́л прийти́, но не смог. He wanted to come but could not.

Or

и́ли or

The everyday “or”, and the options are not necessarily exclusive.

Чай и́ли ко́фе? Tea or coffee?
ли́бо either, or

Stronger and more formal. Doubled as ли́бо ... ли́бо it means strictly one or the other.

Ли́бо сейча́с, ли́бо никогда́. Either now or never.

Also, too

то́же also, too

Another SUBJECT does the same thing. It is about who.

Он врач. Я то́же врач. He is a doctor. I am a doctor too.
та́кже also, in addition

The same subject does an ADDITIONAL thing. It is about what.

Он врач, а та́кже писа́тель. He is a doctor and also a writer.
кро́ме того́ besides, moreover

Opens a new sentence and adds a further argument. Written register.

Кварти́ра дорога́я. Кро́ме того́, она́ далеко́. The flat is expensive. Besides, it is far away.

But, however, still

одна́ко however

The formal но. It can open a sentence, which но normally does not.

Одна́ко реше́ние бы́ло при́нято. However, the decision was taken.
зато́ but on the other hand, to make up for it

A CONSOLING but: the drawback is admitted, then compensated.

Кварти́ра ма́ленькая, зато́ в це́нтре. The flat is small, but on the other hand it is central.
тем не ме́нее nevertheless

Concedes the point and holds the position anyway. Formal.

Бы́ло по́здно. Тем не ме́нее мы пошли́. It was late. Nevertheless we went.
всё-таки still, all the same

Colloquial and slightly stubborn: the speaker is holding out.

Я всё-таки ду́маю, что ты прав. I still think you are right.
хотя́ although, though

Introduces the concession, and unlike но it can open the sentence.

Хотя́ бы́ло хо́лодно, мы гуля́ли. Although it was cold, we went for a walk.
несмотря́ на in spite of, despite

Takes the ACCUSATIVE, which is unusual, and attaches to a noun rather than a clause.

Несмотря́ на дождь, матч состоя́лся. In spite of the rain, the match took place.
вме́сто instead of

Takes the genitive. One thing replaces another.

Вме́сто ко́фе я вы́пил чай. Instead of coffee I drank tea.

Choosing between them

These comparisons are the reason this page exists. A function word is rarely hard to translate; it is hard to choose.

и against а against но

English uses “and” and “but”; Russian needs three. и adds with no contrast at all: Он ку́пит хлеб и молоко́. а sets two things side by side without either defeating the other: Я чита́ю, а он спит, nobody is thwarted, they are simply different. но means the second half cancels an expectation: Он хоте́л прийти́, но не смог. If you can swap in “whereas”, you want а; if you can swap in “yet”, you want но.

то́же against та́кже

Both translate as “also”, and the test is what is being repeated. то́же repeats the PREDICATE for a new subject: Он врач. Я то́же врач. та́кже adds a new predicate to the same subject: Он врач, а та́кже писа́тель. A useful shortcut: то́же answers “who else?” and та́кже answers “what else?”.

но against зато́ against одна́ко

All three contrast, with different attitudes. но is neutral. зато́ is consoling: it concedes a drawback and then offers compensation, so Кварти́ра ма́ленькая, зато́ в це́нтре is optimistic where Кварти́ра ма́ленькая, но в це́нтре is merely factual. одна́ко is the formal register, and it is the one of the three that can comfortably begin a sentence.